Алексей Виноградов – Holy waters of the ancestral homeland of mankind (страница 6)

According to autosomal genetics, the population of the Dnieper-Donets culture was formed as a result of migration from the Balkan Peninsula to the Northern Black Sea region between the 7th and 6th millennia BC. The migrants interbred with the indigenous population, forming a new community. Genetic studies have confirmed that the Dnieper-Donetsk tribes (the population of the Mariupol community) received 45% of their genes from Balkan settlers from Serbia, 49% from settlers from the Samara region, and 7% from Linear Pottery tribes (Y-DNA haplogroups R1b and I2 and mtDNA haplogroup U). Moreover, almost all Y-chromosomal haplogroups of Dnieper-Donetsk males are of Balkan origin (I-L699 and R1b-V88), suggesting that the Dnieper-Donetsk population inherited their genetic heritage primarily through female lineages.

During the 6th millennium BC, the Dnieper-Donetsk tribes expanded eastward into the Don region, where they were further assimilated. The Dnieper-Donetsk culture in the Voronezh region, along with the Dnieper-Donetsk Y-chromosomal haplogroup I-L699, contains R1a-M459, characteristic of Eastern Europe.

In the Don region, the Dnieper-Donetsk tribes encountered a flood of migrants from the south with Transcaucasian genetics. As a result, the Dnieper-Donetsk culture in the Zaporizhzhia region (5475-5320 BC) contains 25% CHG genes, while in Mariupol (5474-5236 BC) it contains 7% Transcaucasian genes.

Around 4500 BC, the situation in the Northern Black Sea region changed dramatically with the invasion of pastoralists from the Volga region and the Ciscaucasia. The Dnieper-Donetsk culture was replaced by the Sredny Stog culture. Genetically, the Sredny Stog people inherited between 30 and 80% of their genes from the Dnieper-Donetsk population.

The continuity of Y-chromosomal haplogroups acquired after migration from the Balkan Peninsula was preserved in the Sredny Stog culture: almost all men of this culture possessed the Dnieper-Donetsk haplogroup I-L699. This continuity was disrupted only with the arrival of the Yamnaya culture in the Northern Black Sea region in the 4th millennium BC, which brought the R1b-M269 haplogroup, which was new to the region. The Yamnaya culture itself inherited approximately 23% of the Dnieper-Donetsk culture's genetics.

The modern population of Europe is the result of a mixture of lineages or haplogroups: R1a, I1, I2, and R1b. R1b carriers dominate in Western Europe, while R1a carriers dominate in the East, particularly in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. In Africa, haplogroup R1b is found in isolation among the indigenous populations of the Lake Chad region. This branch migrated to the continent from Eurasia in prehistoric times and differs from European subclades.

In the Americas, haplogroup R1b is found in isolation among indigenous populations of Algonquian tribes, including the Ojibwe (79%), Chipewyan (62%), Seminole, Sioux, and Cherokee. A special analysis showed that the R1b found in North American groups is not a direct modern European trait.

B.V. Gornung believes that the original territory of the Indo-European linguistic community in the late 4th - early 3rd millennium BC included most of the northern Balkan Peninsula, the Middle Danube basin to the Carpathians east of the Tisza and to the Tatra Mountains, as well as the area of the archaeological Trypillian culture.

The Anatolian group was the first to emerge from this community, expanding into Asia Minor. At the end of the 3rd millennium BC, a northward expansion occurred (the Globular Amphora culture). At the same time, a group emerged, represented by the Middle Dnieper, Fatyanovo, and Komarovo cultures (the last purely Slavic). At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, a "breakaway" occurred from the southeastern group (the Late Yamna and Catacomb cultures, interacting with the Trypillian and Poltavka cultures). According to B.V. Gornung, the Western European variants of the Corded Ware and Battle Axe cultures gave rise to the Proto-Illyrian (Unetice and Pre-Luzatian cultures), Proto-Celtic, and Proto-Italo-Germanic dialect groups. At the same time, Indo-Europeans settled in Greece (the Middle Helladic culture), and the Proto-Slavic group formed in Ukraine.

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It is believed that the Trypillian culture formed the basis for the Usatov culture (considered a late variant of the Trypillian culture itself) and the Middle Dnieper culture.

The Usatov culture (3900-2500 BC or 3100-2500 BC) was located on the northwestern coast of the Black Sea between the mouths of the Bug and Danube rivers. It is usually considered a single cultural and historical community with the Coțofeni (3500-2500 BC) and Foltești (3500-2500 BC) cultures, which occupied most of Romania, Serbia, and Bulgaria.

Radiocarbon dates for the Usatov culture, after correction for the reservoir effect, are approximately 3700-2800 BC.

It is believed that the Usatovo culture resulted from the migration of the Sredny Stog culture to the lands of the Trypillian culture, interacting with migrants of the Varna-Karanovo-Gumelnitsa culture, who fled the flood from the western coast of the Black Sea. The Varna-Karanovo-Gumelnitsa migration and the expansion of Trypillia occurred between 4200 and 3900 BC, although other datings place this event as early as 3100 BC. The fusion of these three elements created the Usatovo culture, which spread along the northwestern Black Sea coast.

The main economic activity of the Usatovo culture in Ukraine was livestock breeding. They raised sheep (63% of the herd), cattle, and horses.

The location of Usatovo culture settlements on the seashore facilitated fishing: many catfish and sturgeon bones have been found.

They produced tools, weapons, and jewelry made of copper and silver. Glass beads, along with finds near Kiev and beads from the Moldovan village of Ketroshika, are the oldest glass in Eurasia. The Usatovo people conducted extensive trade with the Caucasus, the Mediterranean, and Egypt.

Based on autosomal genes, Usatovo culture bearers are 43% descended from the ancient steppe population of the Stavropol Krai, 5% from Caucasian farmers, and 52% from the Trypillian culture.

The Y-chromosomal haplogroups E1b, R1a, and J1 have been identified in the Usatovo culture. Mitochondrial haplogroups T2h2, X2d, U5a1, W1, H+195, and U4d3 have been identified.

The Usatovo culture is considered Indo-European. Traditionally, it is considered part of the Balkan-Danubian cultural complex, which stretched from Troy to the Danube Valley.

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More controversial is the relationship between the Trypillian groups and the Corded Ware tribes and their role in the genesis of these cultures, particularly the Middle Dnieper culture.

The Middle Dnieper Corded Ware culture (26th-15th centuries BC) was located in the Middle Dnieper region (Belarus, southwestern European Russia, and northern Ukraine). The earliest settlements have been identified in the Kyiv and Cherkasy regions. The development of the Middle Dnieper culture ceased with the emergence of the Sosnitsa culture (a variant of the purely Slavic culture) in its territory.

The population engaged in livestock breeding, agriculture, hunting, and fishing. The Zhilo people manufactured flint, stone, and bronze tools and weapons, metal, bone, and amber jewelry, and ceramic pottery. They traded with the Caucasus, from which they obtained bronze items and metal. There are finds of Egyptian faience multi-segment beads and bronze willow-leaf pendants (18th-15th centuries BC).

The Middle Dnieper culture is represented by settlements in 209 locations in the Middle and Upper Dnieper regions. The settlements cover less than one hectare. The remains of above-ground dwellings with pillar structures and hearth pits or stone hearths inside have been discovered at these settlements.

The stages of development of the Middle Dnieper culture allow us to determine the region of its formation (the right bank of the Middle Dnieper region) and trace the settlement of the Middle Dnieper tribes.

Initially, the Middle Dnieper tribes advanced from the right bank of the Middle Dnieper region northward and to the left bank, into the territory of the late Trypillian tribes of the Sofievka group, then along the banks of the Desna, Lower Pripyat, and Sozh rivers. Sites from the middle period are known throughout the Middle and Upper Dnieper region. During the late period, the territory of the Middle Dnieper tribes expanded further. Settlements appeared on the banks of the Seim, in the upper reaches of the Oka River, on the left bank of the Western Dvina in the Vitebsk region, in the upper reaches of the Neman, and in the Minsk region.

There are various hypotheses regarding the origins of the Middle Dnieper culture. According to researchers, the origins of the Middle Dnieper culture should be sought in the northern regions of the Middle Dnieper region, based on the Yamnaya culture. Its subsequent development occurred in interaction with the Catacomb and Volyn cultures, as well as the Late Trypillia culture.