Валерия Косякова – Apocalyptic Concepts in the Middle Ages (страница 4)

Isaiah also first introduces the image of the messiah as an ideal king, fulfilling an eschatological mission on earth, bringing about a wise kingdom of justice: "... he shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked" (Isaiah 11:1-6). In the so-called "Apocalypse of Isaiah" ( chapters 24-27), 7an allegory of evil appears in the form of a chthonic monster—the sea leviathan, " the straight-running serpent, and leviathan, the twisting serpent " (Isaiah 27:1), and a prophecy of the resurrection of the dead (Isaiah 26:19).

The last prophetic book, standing in a row of early monuments and replete with new eschatological images, is the Book of Joel, probably written between the two campaigns of Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem, in 600 BC. 8The book begins with a description of a natural disaster, albeit spontaneous, but widespread - a plague of locusts, but as the narrative progresses, the drama intensifies, unfolding into a tragedy of eschatological proportions: " Blow ye the trumpet in Zion, and sound the alarm on My holy mountain: let all the inhabitants of the land tremble: for the day of the Lord cometh, for it is near, a day of darkness and gloom, a day of clouds and thick darkness: a nation spreading as the dawn upon the mountains, a great and mighty people, such as was not since the beginning, nor shall be again throughout all generations. The fire shall devour before it, and the flame shall scorch after it: "Before him the land will be like the Garden of Eden, but behind him will be a desolate wilderness, and no one will be able to escape from it… " (Joel 2:1–32). Joel prophesies of the Lord's judgment: " And I will show signs in heaven and on the earth: blood, fire, and pillars of smoke. The sun will be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and dreadful day of the Lord comes ." Joel's reasoning continues to develop the image of the judgment of the nations that oppressed Israel (Joel 3:2) and the testimony of the potential salvation of all who believe in the Lord (Joel 2:32)—an idea later embodied in Christian preaching.

By the sixth century BC, the main motifs of Abrahamic eschatologies had taken shape: ideas of sin and redemption, images of universal catastrophes and disasters, a premonition of the day of God's wrath, the coming of the Messiah, the Last Judgment, and a future earthly paradise.

Apocalyptic sentiments peaked during the tragic period of the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple and the captivity of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah's prophecies foreshadowed the future deliverance of the Jewish people and the judgment of enemy nations, and the promise of a new covenant subsequently played a fundamental role in the development of Christianity (Jeremiah 31–34).

The period of the Babylonian captivity also includes the prophecy of a captive priest who, at the end of the sixth century BCE, wrote one of the most mysterious images of Scripture—the book of Ezekiel. The eschatological scenes he described are distinguished by impressive imagery and mystical details, such as a vision of the resurrection of the dead: " And he said to me, 'Prophesy upon these bones and say to them, "O dry bones, hear the word of the Lord!"' Thus says the Lord God to these bones: 'Behold, I will put breath into you, and you will live. I will lay sinews on you, and bring forth flesh upon you, and cover you with skin, and put breath into you, and you will live. And you will know that I am the Lord...' And as I prophesied, there was a noise, and behold, there was a movement, and the bones came together, bone to bone. And I looked, and, behold, there were sinews upon them, and flesh had grown up, and skin had covered them above, but there was no breath in them… Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe upon these slain, that they may live… Thus says the Lord God: Behold, I will open your graves, and will bring you up, O my people, from your graves, and will bring you into the land of Israel ” (Ezek. 37:4–13).

Ezekiel develops the theme of eschatological war through the invasion of Gog and Magog—the forces of evil embodied in a universal catastrophe (Ezekiel 38). In European culture, Gog and Magog became bywords for discord and disaster, influencing the visual art of the Middle Ages. In the paintings of Hieronymus Bosch, the legend of the enemy people takes on a visual equivalent, and in Russian icons, the depiction of the dog-headed peoples testifies to an apocalyptic war, the ideas of which were embodied in Ivan the Terrible's Oprichnina.

After the sixth century BCE, the themes developed by the preceding prophets were echoed and developed in the books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The latter added a new detail: God sent the prophet Elijah to earth with the mission of preparing the people for the Last Judgment (Malachi 4:5–6).

Eschatological imagery multiplied and was enriched in preaching. After the conquests of Alexander the Great, the influence of Greek culture extended far beyond the borders of the ancient city-states: the Hellenistic era introduced new literary forms for Jewish prophecies. A book written in the pseudepigraphic genre, attributed to the legendary ancient sage mentioned in Ezekiel, is the Book of Daniel ( second century BC, during the persecution of Antiochus ). Its classical influence is clearly evident: historical figures are encoded in symbolic images. For example, the nations that harmed Israel are described as apocalyptic beasts: the last beast (the Macedonian empire) has 10 horns, signifying the kingdoms of Alexander the Great's successors (10 being the number of the most important Diadochi—commanders and rulers after Alexander). The "Son of Man" is allegorically depicted as the Jewish people, and the Archangel Michael assumes the role of a formidable messiah. The resurrection of the dead itself becomes possible after the final battle between good and evil—during which evil will be fully revealed, a necessary condition for the ultimate victory of good. Furthermore, during the Hellenistic period, apocrypha were written that were not canonized by either Jewish or Christian tradition. They were read and copied, understood and interpreted: “The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs” ( 1st century BC), “The Ascension of Moses” (presumably 1st century AD), “The Books of the Sibyls” (2nd century BC – 4th century AD), the most important of the apocrypha – “The Book of Enoch” (influenced early Christian literature, its vivid imagery describes the Last Judgment, at which the angels who rebelled and fell away from God will also be judged and punished – an idea subsequently developed in medieval literature ; presumably 3rd – 1st centuries BC).

The rapid development of apocalyptic literature in Jewish circles is linked to a number of cultural and historical events: the persecution of Jews by the Seleucids, Roman expansion, the Maccabean revolt, the Bar Kokhba revolt, and, most importantly, the destruction of the most sacred site—the Temple in Jerusalem. This era brought to the forefront of global attention not just new images and disasters, but also new heroes and the Christian religion.

The Apocalypse of Christ

The messianic preaching of Jesus of Nazareth dates back to the 20th–30th centuries CE, in which eschatology occupied a crucial place. Jesus is undoubtedly presented as an apocalyptic prophet, proclaiming the end of the world, repentance before the apocalyptic battle, and salvation by faith.

Christ's eschatological preaching, initially transmitted as an oral tradition, was recorded in the Gospels by the end of the first century. It's likely that many of Christ's sayings in the first century were perceived as prophecies about the end of the world: " And he said to them, 'Truly I say to you, there are some standing here who will not taste death until they see the kingdom of God come with power '" (Mark 9:1). Subsequently, these meanings faded, giving way to new interpretations.

In the words of Christ on the eve of his arrest, inspired by the books of the prophets Zechariah, Daniel, Isaiah, and Ezekiel, an apocalyptic scenario emerges. This speech is presented in the Gospel of Mark and with variations in Matthew and Luke: “ Jesus answered and said to him, ‘Do you see these great buildings? All these will be thrown down, so that not one stone will be left here upon another ’” (Mark 13:2). And further: “ Jesus answered and said to them, ‘Take heed that no one deceives you. For many will come in my name, saying, “I am he”; and they will deceive many. But when you hear of wars and rumors of wars, do not be troubled: for these things must happen, but the end is not yet. For nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. And there will be earthquakes in divers places, and there will be famines and disturbances. These are the beginning of sorrows.’” But take heed to yourselves: for they will deliver you up to councils, and scourge you in the synagogues: and you will stand before governors and kings for my sake, for a testimony before them.... Brother will deliver up brother to death, and a father his child: and children will rise up against parents and put them to death. And you will be hated by all for my name's sake: but he who endures to the end, the same shall be saved. But when you see the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet, standing where it ought not (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. Let no one who is on the housetop go down into the house, nor go in to take anything out of his house; and let no one who is in the field turn back to take his cloak. Woe to those who are with child, and to those who give suck, in those days! Pray ye that your flight be not in winter. For in those days shall there be such tribulation as was not since the beginning of the creation which God made, until this time, no, nor ever shall be. And unless the Lord had shortened those days, no flesh would have been saved. But for the sake of the elect, whom He chose, He shortened those days. Then if anyone says to you, “Look, here is the Christ!” or, “Look, there!” believe it not. For false Christs and false prophets will arise and perform signs and wonders, so that, if possible, they may deceive even the elect. But take heed. Behold, I have told you all things beforehand. But in those days, after that tribulation, the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light, and the stars will fall from heaven, and the powers of the heavens will be shaken. Then they will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds with power and glory. And then He will send His angels and gather His elect from the four winds, from the ends of the earth to the ends of heaven. Learn a parable from the fig tree: When its branch is already tender and puts forth leaves, you know that summer is near. So also, when you see these things happening, know that it is near, right at the doors. Truly I say to you, this generation will not pass away until all these things take place. Heaven and earth will pass away, but My words will not pass away. But about that day or that hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father. Take heed, watch, and pray, for you do not know when the time will come (Mark 13:5–33).