Фаррух Шарофутдинов – The use of accelerators and the phenomena of collisions of elementary particles with high-order energy to generate electrical energy. The «Electron» Project. Monograph (страница 3)

The number of various experiments conducted in various research institutes, which are now waiting for the latest source of electrical energy, will increase. A person will be able to extend the time of his stay in space several times and may even take a swing at seemingly insane ideas about creating artificial atoms from electrical energy. At the same time, the number of various assumptions and riddles that will be reflected in the works of science fiction writers and writers will increase. The whole human world will sway and begin to move with leaps and bounds and a great future will come.

But in order to realize all this, you need to take the first step, namely, to enter into the depths of the Electron research.

Section 1. Theoretical calculations

Chapter 1. The History of Atomism

Everything consists of particles… things differ from each other by the particles they consist of, their order and location…

The quantum world of elementary particles and the atomic nucleus is amazing in its beauty, structure and scale. And then this world will also be considered in all its difficulties. But initially it is necessary to understand the very essence of the first steps in the discovery of the atom, the very particle with which everything began. The first chapter is radically different from the rest of the chapters because it was created specifically not only for higher minds who are already operating with rather complex concepts, but also for the young generation just entering the path of this amazing science. Therefore, in this chapter everything is described as simply and elementary as possible. So, without further ado, the history of the greatest atomic science begins…

Since the most ancient times, people have been trying to determine the structure of our world, to understand what it consists of. Initially, all these questions were purely philosophical, for this reason there was such a thing as atomism, according to this theory, all substances, objects, bodies consisted of indivisible particles – atoms. This idea was widely supported in ancient times, first appearing in various parts of our planet from ancient India to ancient Greece and the Eastern world.

For example, in Ancient Greece atomism was also widely supported by Democritus of Abder, Leucippus and others. Opponents of the ideas of atomism could only claim that matter divides indefinitely. Democritus' teaching was also based on the idea that atoms are not only indivisible, but their number is infinite, they are not created, and they are eternal, and the properties of objects depend on atoms. A great contribution to the idea of atomism was also made by the philosopher Epicurus, and later by the poet Lucretius. But if everything was clear with the statement of the very concept of the atom, since the atom is translated from ancient Greek as "indivisible", that is, atoms could not be divided, then there were problems with their forms. For the first time, the idea of the shapes of the atom was put forward by Plato, assuming that atoms have the shapes of Platonic bodies or regular polyhedra like a cube, pyramid, tetrahedron, dodecahedron, octahedron and others, that is, polyhedra whose faces are equal to each other. Atomism deserved a lot of attention after active references to this idea by Aristotle himself, after which this idea began to spread around the world.

In the Eastern world, where outstanding thinkers and geniuses conducted their research and performed excellent research at the Mamun Academy, there were also separate opinions on the topic of atomism. Such outstanding scientists as Abu Rayhan Biruni, ibn Sina, Abu Nasr ibn Iraq, Mahmud Khujandi, Ahmad ibn Muhammad Khorezmi, Ahmad ibn Hamid Naisaburi and many others conducted their experiments at the Mamun Academy itself. Many of them are outstanding scientists, if Abu Ali ibn Husayn ibn Abdallah ibn Sina, also known as ibn Sina or Avicenna in Europe created the "Canon of Medical Science and is considered the father of medicine, then Abu Rayhan Biruni is an encyclopedic scientist who conducted research in physics, mathematics, astronomy, natural sciences, history, chronology, linguistics, indology, earth sciences, geography, philosophy, cartography, anthropology, astrology, chemistry, medicine, psychology, theology, pharmacology, history of religion and mineralogy. He is also considered the creator of the first globe, also the first person to measure the radius of the planet using trigonometric patterns, as well as the first who predicted the presence of the continent of America.

To date, the letters of Abu Rayhan Biruni and ibn Sina have been preserved, along with their works, where scientists also debated on the topic of the structure of matter. According to the assumption of scientists, the world consisted of particles smaller than an atom, it is there that one can see the assumptions that the atom particle, which was then considered indivisible, is divisible, but not to infinity. As for their shape, then it was assumed that the atoms have a spherical shape, since the sphere was considered a kind of ideal model, therefore, the atoms should be like this.

Time passes and a variety of discoveries are made. But about the ideas of Epicurus, however, as well as about atomism, they forget, because the ideas of Epicurus contradicted Christian teachings and the church forbade its use, as well as the assertion that atoms exist. But the French Catholic priest Pierre Gassendi revived the idea of atomism, somewhat changing the notion that atoms were created by God. And after the defense of atomism by the chemist Robert Boyle – an outstanding chemist and author of the work "The Skeptical Chemist", as well as by Sir Isaac Newton, who himself was revered as an outstanding scientist, atomism was adopted by the end of the 17th century.

Let us quote Sir Newton himself on this topic from a translation of his works: "It seems to me that from the very beginning God created matter in the form of solid, weighty, impenetrable, mobile particles and that he gave these particles such dimensions, such shape and such other properties and created them in such relative quantities as he needed it was for the purpose for which he created them. These primary particles are absolutely solid: they are immeasurably harder than the bodies that consist of them – so hard that they never wear out and do not break into pieces, because there is no such force that could divide into parts what God himself created inseparable and whole on the first day of creation. Precisely because the particles themselves remain intact and unchanged, they can form bodies that have the same nature and the same structure forever and ever; for if the particles were worn out or broken into pieces, the nature of things depending on them would change. Water and earth, made up of old, worn-out particles and fragments, would differ in structure and properties from water and earth, built from still whole particles at the beginning of creation. Therefore, in order for nature to be durable, all changes in the bodies of nature can consist only in a change of location, in the formation of new combinations and in the movements of these eternal particles… God could create particles of matter with different sizes and can have different shapes, place them at different distances from each other, endow them, perhaps, with different densities and different acting forces. In all this, at least, I do not see any contradictions… So, apparently, all bodies were built from the above-mentioned solid impenetrable particles, which were placed in space on the first day of creation at the direction of God's mind."

And if at that time Boyle's ideas were established that there are "simple bodies" (chemical elements) and "perfect mixtures" (chemical compounds) and any "perfect mixtures" can be divided into "simple bodies", then in the book "The New System of Chemical Philosophy" of 1808, John Dalton put forward the first idea about which of the substances, to which type is subject. But before that, Lavoisier proved that mass is constant, it does not disappear anywhere and does not appear out of nowhere. Davy also discovered a number of chemical elements: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, sodium and potassium were discovered by him in 1807, and in 1808 he also discovered such elements as calcium, strontium, barium and magnesium. Iron, zinc, copper, lead, silver, platinum, gold and mercury were also discovered.

Their discovery did not take much more work, since many of them were isolated from ores, isolated from chemical compounds. And already water, ammonia, carbon dioxide and many other compounds were already considered perfect mixtures. And now, Dalton, having everything he needed, decided to determine the atomic masses of all chemical elements, and also enter them all into tables, that is, classify them. So, Dalton introduced his own designation for each chemical element, for example, for hydrogen he introduced a circle icon with a dot in the center, for oxygen there was a sign – an ordinary circle, and for carbon there was a sign of a painted black circle, etc. To calculate the masses of atoms, Dalton conducted some experiments.